The conversation
The Science of Belief: Andrew Shtulman on Intuition vs. Fact
Cognitive scientist Andrew Shtulman explores the stubborn gap between human intuition and scientific reality. From why we falsely believe cold weather causes sickness to how our minds resist concepts like evolution and inertia, Shtulman breaks down how mental models form in childhood, why adults never truly outgrow them, and how developing "cognitive reflection" is our best defense against scientific misconceptions and online misinformation.
6Degrees
Andrew Shtulman’s fascination with how people form—and cling to—intuitive beliefs began early.
Andrew Shtulman
I was interested in why people believe weird things. There were certain students who requested to leave the classroom whenever evolution was brought up because they came from very religious families. I just found that fascinating—that they were uninterested in even hearing what evolution was about.
6Degrees
What began as curiosity evolved into a lifelong exploration of how the human mind constructs its own common-sense theories of the world.
Andrew Shtulman
I remember finding the concept of evolution very counterintuitive. Those sorts of issues just percolated in the back of my head as I became a psychology major.
6Degrees
Though he initially considered philosophy or religious studies, he realized that his real interest lay not in winning arguments but in understanding why people believe differently. That realization led him toward cognitive development and the study of intuitive theories—mental models we form in childhood that shape how we perceive and explain reality.
At Princeton, a required empirical project cemented his path.
Andrew Shtulman
Most of my peers were not having much fun doing theirs, but I really enjoyed it. That’s when I realized research might be the path for me.
6Degrees
Graduate work at Harvard with Susan Carey, a leading scholar of conceptual development, helped him refine his focus on how intuitive beliefs interact with scientific learning.
Andrew Shtulman
Working with her really honed my interest in conceptual change—how people shift from intuitive to scientific ideas.
6Degrees
Shtulman defines intuitive theories as sets of beliefs that help you interpret the world around you, explain events in the past, and predict events in the future. They’re called intuitive because they’re not taught to you in any formal context. We devise them on our own. Built from perception, culture, and experience, these mental models resemble scientific theories in structure but lack their precision.
Andrew Shtulman
What we put together on our own is a good start, but definitely not as powerful an understanding as provided by science.
6Degrees
That tension between intuition and science lies at the heart of Shtulman’s work. His research shows that even after learning formal scientific concepts, people rarely abandon their intuitive ones.
Andrew Shtulman
Even if you learn a scientifically accurate theory, you never give up on your older intuitive ideas. They linger and are triggered by everyday contexts.
6Degrees
This persistence explains why even educated adults may hesitate on statements like humans descended from sea animals or the Earth orbits the Sun.
Andrew Shtulman
We like to think of ourselves as well educated, but many of our attitudes and beliefs are based on intuition rather than empirical fact.
6Degrees
He illustrates this with enduring misconceptions in mechanics and biology.
Andrew Shtulman
People tend to think objects move because of internal forces imparted by a push, rather than understanding inertia. And when thinking about evolution, people often don’t entertain the idea that species evolve at all.
6Degrees
These beliefs are deeply intuitive, not easily displaced by classroom instruction.
In his 2017 book Scienceblind, Shtulman explores how such intuitive theories persist.
Andrew Shtulman
I wrote Scienceblind because there were very rich literatures on intuitive theories that the average person didn’t know anything about. Students don’t show up to science class as blank slates—they already have detailed understandings of how things work that are helpful in daily life but inconsistent with the science they’re about to be taught.
6Degrees
One of his favorite examples is the idea that being cold causes illness.
Andrew Shtulman
Across cultures, people have decided that getting cold makes you sick. But controlled experiments show that only exposure to viruses causes colds.
6Degrees
These misconceptions survive, he argues, because they fit our intuitive sense of cause and effect—even when contradicted by evidence.
Shtulman’s second book, Learning to Imagine, challenges another widespread belief—that imagination declines with age.
Andrew Shtulman
We’re not born with amazing imaginations that dwindle away. Imagination grows as you know more about the world, because knowledge is the fodder for imagination.
6Degrees
Children’s make-believe, he explains, is often an imitation of the adult world rather than genuine fantasy.
Andrew Shtulman
Adults are actually the ones with rich imaginations. Our creativity just gets channeled into our professions, where it doesn’t feel imaginative—but it is.
6Degrees
As a teacher at Occidental College, Shtulman brings these insights into the classroom.
Andrew Shtulman
I like to pump students’ intuitions. I’ll pose a problem and elicit their ideas, then we work from there—sometimes to show how those intuitions are wrong, other times to build on them.
6Degrees
He offers an example from physics: To teach the normal force—the idea that a surface pushes up on an object—I start with springs and flexible boards. Students can feel the push. Eventually, they realize even a solid table pushes up too.
His work also explores cognitive reflection—the ability to override an intuitive response with an analytical one.
Andrew Shtulman
We’ve created a version of the Cognitive Reflection Test for children, using brain teasers like, “What do cows drink?” which elicits “milk,” but the correct answer is water.
6Degrees
The results are striking:
Andrew Shtulman
Kids who are more cognitively reflective are better at understanding counterintuitive scientific ideas—and learning them.
6Degrees
More recently, Shtulman has turned his attention to media literacy and misinformation.
Andrew Shtulman
We’ve been studying how cognitive reflection relates to detecting misinformation online. Reflective children are better at identifying false stories than those who are not as reflective. Now we’re testing ways to help all children become better at recognizing misinformation.
6Degrees
For Shtulman, science communication isn’t just about accuracy—it’s about accessibility.
Andrew Shtulman
When I’m writing an academic paper, I never write a sentence I wouldn’t be comfortable saying to someone outside my field. Part of being a good scientist is being able to communicate what you’re doing and what you found.
6Degrees
Asked how he defines success, he pauses.
Andrew Shtulman
For me as an academic, success is doing something that other people are interested in and that actually changes the current theories of the day. More generally, success means finding something that makes you feel valued and productive.